A: In the early stages, cervical cancer is mostly asymptomatic. At this stage, the only way to detect the presence of cancer is through a cervical screening test, also known as a pap smear.

In advanced stages, cervical cancer can present as:

• Prolonged or heavier menstrual bleeding

• Pain during intercourse

• Bleeding with intercourse

• Pelvic pain

• Foul-smelling or unusually coloured discharge

• Abnormal bleeding after menopause

• Abnormal bleeding between menstrual cycles.

A: The exact cause of cervical cancer is not yet fully understood but it is known that HPV plays an important role in the development of cancer. Cervical cancer has a multifactorial origin, meaning that multiple factors can result in the development of cancer, such as environmental factors and lifestyle choices.

A: Conducting regular breast checks at home is recommended for women older than 20. Once you’re aware of the early signs and symptoms to look out for, use your hands to feel for lumps in your breast or changes in skin texture on your breasts and armpits. Remain mindful of pain and consult your doctor if you’re experiencing unusual breast or armpit pain that’s not linked to pre-menstrual symptoms.

• Many sexual partners. As HPV plays an essential role in the development of cervical cancer, and it is a sexually transmitted infection (STI), multiple sexual partners is a significant risk factor for cervical cancer.

• Early sexual activity. This increases the risk of contracting HPV.

• Other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The presence of other STIs puts people at risk for HPV.

• A weakened immune system. 

• Smoking. It is commonly associated with squamous cell cervical cancer.

• Intrauterine exposure to DES. If a pregnant woman took diethylstilbestrol (DES) during her pregnancy, then the female fetus is at increased risk of clear cell adenocarcinoma, a type of cervical cancer

A: The pap smear and HPV test are the only cervical cancer screening tests.

• The Pap test (or Pap smear) looks for precancerous changes in the cervical cells that can progress into cervical cancer if left untreated.

• The HPV test detects the virus that can cause cervical cancer.

A: While some women find the screening tests uncomfortable, the tests on their own are not painful. For the screening tests, a speculum needs to be inserted to allow the doctor or nurse to get a better look at the cervix. This part can create some discomfort.

A: Cervical cancer screening with a pap smear should begin at the age of 21 years. Women between 21 to 29 years with a normal Pap smear should repeat the test every 3 years. Women over the age of 30 years should also undergo screening with an HPV test. If the HPV test is negative and the Pap smear shows no abnormal cervical cells, the next screening test can be performed after five years.

However, if a woman has a positive HPV test and Pap smear, then frequent testing will be required.

A:

• Two days before the test, avoid intercourse, douching, suppositories, spermicides, creams, or vaginal jellies

• Make sure the test is not scheduled for the same day as the menstrual period, which will impact the quality of cells collected.

A: The vaccine protects against infection from HPV, which is known to infect at least 50% of sexually active adults. While the body does clear out the virus on its own, in some cases it can persist and lead to cervical, anal, and oral cancer. Complete immunization against the virus helps prevent infection and reduce the incidence of cervical cancer worldwide.

A: The HPV vaccine is recommended for both men and women, from the age of 9 years to the age of 45. Vaccination early in life helps prevent cervical cancer, vaginal cancer, and vulval cancer in women. In men, it can prevent anal cancer and genital warts.

Moreover, vaccinating men against HPV will help decrease cervical cancer rates in women as it decreases the likelihood of transmission. Hence, vaccinating both men and women is crucial for the prevention of cervical cancer in women.